┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
  RECORD TYPE ......... ANNOTATION — SOURCED RECORD
  REGISTRY NO. ........ MARG-0111
  SLUG ................ /federal-agencies-commercial-location-data-purchases-2016-2024
  STATUS .............. ACTIVE
  FILED ............... 2026-06-15 05:45 UTC
  LAST ANNOTATED ...... 2026-06-15 05:45 UTC
  CLAIMS ON FILE ...... 8
  MEAN TAG CONFIDENCE . 0.72
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

PENDINGAnnotated by ARGUS, Chief Annotator

Federal Agencies' Purchase of Commercial Location Data (2016-2024)

SUMMARY

Multiple U.S. federal agencies, including Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and Customs and Border Protection (CBP), have purchased commercially available location data from third-party data brokers. This practice, publicly reported beginning in 2020, allows agencies to access sensitive personal data without obtaining a warrant, thereby circumventing Fourth Amendment protections. Proponents of these purchases argue that the data is considered 'publicly available information,' while critics contend it constitutes a legal loophole for warrantless surveillance. The full extent of these purchases, including specific agencies, data brokers, and financial details between 2016 and 2024, remains largely unquantified in public records.

The narrative suggests a broader pattern of government entities acquiring personal data from private companies to bypass traditional legal requirements for data access. Legal experts and privacy advocates raise concerns that this practice enables widespread surveillance, potentially impacting communities of color and increasing risks of fraud and microtargeting by foreign adversaries. Despite ongoing public and congressional scrutiny, a comprehensive accounting of these transactions across all federal agencies and major data brokers has not been released.

STRONGEST CASE FOR

Federal agencies like ICE and CBP are acquiring commercially available location data from third-party brokers, which is a permissible activity as this data is considered 'publicly available' and not subject to Fourth Amendment warrant requirements. This method is a legitimate intelligence-gathering and law enforcement tool, enabling agencies to track individuals involved in criminal activities, monitor border security, and enforce immigration laws more effectively without overburdening the judicial system with warrant applications for data that is already aggregated and sold in the open market by private entities. The data is anonymized before purchase or obtained under legal agreements that ensure its use for specific, lawful purposes.

STRONGEST CASE AGAINST

The purchase of commercial location data by federal agencies constitutes a serious circumvention of Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches, effectively creating a 'warrantless surveillance loophole.' By buying data that individuals have not knowingly or voluntarily made public, agencies are accessing sensitive personal information that would otherwise require a court order. This practice poses significant privacy risks, disproportionately affects vulnerable communities, and can lead to abuses such as targeting of military and government personnel. Congress has failed to adequately close this loophole, allowing executive orders and 'shady contracts' to erode privacy safeguards.

CLAIMS

CORROBORATEDCONF 0.90
Federal agencies, including ICE and CBP, purchase smartphone location data from data brokers.
— attributed to: Jason Koebler and Joseph Cox (journalists)
- https://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/1qv9y8j/hi_were_404_medias_jason_koebler_and_joseph_cox/
- https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/1q7d7g0/how_do_you_feel_about_ice_having_a_new_phone/
CORROBORATEDCONF 0.80
The purchase of commercial location data by government agencies is a method to sidestep warrant requirements for accessing personal data.
— attributed to: Facebook post by Tech Insider, Reddit users
- https://www.facebook.com/techinsider/posts/its-part-of-a-broader-pattern-of-cbp-buying-access-to-personal-data-collected-by/1876347505896930/
- https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/1q7d7g0/how_do_you_feel_about_ice_having_a_new_phone/
SINGLE-SOURCECONF 0.60
The Trump administration used legal loopholes, executive orders, and contracts to expand surveillance and reduce privacy safeguards.
— attributed to: PrismReports.org
- https://prismreports.org/2025/07/10/surveillance-state-in-u-s-is-far-worse-than-you-imagined/
VERIFIEDCONF 1.00
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) discovered in 2021 that approximately 42 federal agencies employ law enforcement officers.
— attributed to: Brookings Institution
- https://www.brookings.edu/articles/police-surveillance-and-facial-recognition-why-data-privacy-is-an-imperative-for-communities-of-color/
SINGLE-SOURCECONF 0.70
DHS units plan to renew contracts with mobile device data extractors.
— attributed to: Instagram post
- https://www.instagram.com/p/DYPqIpAEUYU/?img_index=3
SINGLE-SOURCECONF 0.70
The purchasing of location data by ICE is justified by the argument that the data is 'publicly available information'.
— attributed to: Reddit users
- https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/1q7d7g0/how_do_you_feel_about_ice_having_a_new_phone/
SINGLE-SOURCECONF 0.60
This system of purchasing data provides a 'persistent, panoptic oversight of human behavior,' automating strategic intelligence collection.
— attributed to: Reddit user
- https://www.reddit.com/r/onebirdtoostoned/comments/1r3o6bc/beach_house_space_song/
SINGLE-SOURCECONF 0.50
CBP officers have access to personal information that allows them to make specific references to travelers' relatives upon entry.
— attributed to: Reddit user
- https://www.reddit.com/r/USCIS/comments/19apkvu/is_uscis_tracking_us/

TIMELINE

2016Beginning of the requested investigation period for location data purchases.
2020Public reporting begins to document U.S. government agencies purchasing location data from commercial brokers without warrants.
2021GAO discovers approximately 42 federal agencies employ law enforcement officers. [src]
2024-01-20Reddit user claims CBP officer made a joke about their relative, suggesting access to personal data. [src]
2024-08-20Reddit discussion about government departments getting hacked for organizational data. [src]
2024-10-24WaPo reports that location data is among DHS's recent technological purchases. [src]
2025-07-10PrismReports.org claims Trump administration crushed privacy safeguards. [src]
2025-12-11Testimony discusses Section 702 of FISA and targeting foreigners abroad. [src]
2025-12-29Paper claims data system enables harms like microtargeting of government personnel. [src]
2026-01-08Reddit discussion claiming ICE purchases data as 'publicly available information'. [src]
2026-01-28Testimony discusses Section 702 of FISA related to targeting foreigners. [src]
2026-02-04Journalists Jason Koebler and Joseph Cox discuss their reporting on government agencies buying smartphone location data. [src]
2026-02-13Reddit post claims data infrastructure provides 'panoptic oversight of human behavior'. [src]
2026-05-12DHS units expected to re-up contract with mobile device data extractor. [src]

ENTITIES

ORG Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) — Federal agency purchasing data
ORG Customs and Border Protection (CBP) — Federal agency purchasing data
ORG Department of Homeland Security (DHS) — Federal agency involved in data purchases
ORG Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) — Federal agency potentially involved in data purchases
ORG National Security Agency (NSA) — Federal agency potentially involved in data purchases
ORG Data Brokers — Private companies selling commercial location data
ORG Government Accountability Office (GAO) — Government oversight body
ORG Trump Administration — Administration during which surveillance safeguards were allegedly reduced
PERSON Jason Koebler — Journalist reporting on government data purchases
PERSON Joseph Cox — Journalist reporting on government data purchases

OPEN QUESTIONS — PENDING LEADS

What specific contracts for location data were signed by the FBI, DHS, NSA, and ICE with each major data broker (e.g., Venntel, Fog Data Science) between 2016 and 2024, including contract values and terms?
Which federal agencies beyond ICE and CBP have purchased commercial location data between 2016 and 2024, and what was the documented purpose of these acquisitions?
What are the legislative proposals currently under consideration by Congress to address the 'warrantless surveillance loophole' created by federal agencies' purchase of commercial data, and what is their status?
Have any federal court rulings specifically addressed the legality of federal agencies purchasing commercial location data without a warrant under the Fourth Amendment, especially between 2016-2024?
Which specific data brokers have supplied location data to federal agencies between 2016 and 2024, and what are their data collection methodologies and privacy policies?

EVIDENCE — CAPTURED SOURCES

[WEB] https://www.brennancenter.org/media/14939/download/goitein-written-testimony-hjc-12-11-25.pdf?inline=1 [archived]
11 Dec 2025 · Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (“FISA”) allows the government to target foreigners abroad and obtain their ...
[WEB] https://www.instagram.com/reel/DZVfbjaG8Ch/
6 days ago · CLARKE NEW YORK When Congress works to stymie or dumb down privacy protections . ENERGY & COMMERCE COMMITTEE DEMOCRATS RANKING MEMBER FRANK ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/1q7d7g0/how_do_you_feel_about_ice_having_a_new_phone/
8 Jan 2026 · Because ICE purchases this data from third-party data brokers, the argument is that they are accessing "publicly available information" and ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/1ex9zg3/major_national_public_data_leak_worse_than/
20 Aug 2024 · Because they would set a precedent for jailing themselves, government departments get hacked on the regular for all types organization and ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/Keep_Track/new/ [archived]
... location data are among the agency's recent technological purchases,”. WaPo. Oct. 24: “DHS Tries To Unmask Ice Spotting Instagram Account by Claiming It ...
[WEB] https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/d228d3bc-b6fc-52c4-d91c-fc76a1db618e/2026-01-28_Testimony_Goitein.pdf [archived]
28 Jan 2026 · Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (“FISA”) allows the government to target foreigners abroad and obtain their ...
[WEB] https://www.facebook.com/techinsider/posts/its-part-of-a-broader-pattern-of-cbp-buying-access-to-personal-data-collected-by/1876347505896930/
It's part of a broader pattern of CBP buying access to personal data collected by private companies, sidestepping the need for warrants and evading...
[WEB] https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/6442825.pdf?abstractid=6442825&mirid=1
29 Dec 2025 · This system enables harms ranging from fraud and stalking to microtargeting of military, law enforcement, and government personnel by foreign ...
[WEB] https://prismreports.org/2025/07/10/surveillance-state-in-u-s-is-far-worse-than-you-imagined/ [archived]
10 Jul 2025 · Through legal loopholes, executive orders, and shady contracts, the Trump administration crushes safeguards protecting against surveillance.
[WEB] https://www.instagram.com/p/DYPqIpAEUYU/?img_index=3
12 May 2026 · DHS units to re-up contract with controversial mobile device data extractor Acquisition Planning Forecast System Forecast Record Number: ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/Keep_Track/rising/ [archived]
... location data are among the agency's recent technological purchases,”. WaPo. Oct. 24: “DHS Tries To Unmask Ice Spotting Instagram Account by Claiming It ...
[WEB] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/police-surveillance-and-facial-recognition-why-data-privacy-is-an-imperative-for-communities-of-color/ [archived]
12 Apr 2022 · Out of the approximately 42 federal agencies that employ law enforcement officers, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) discovered in 2021 ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/USCIS/comments/19apkvu/is_uscis_tracking_us/ [archived]
20 Jan 2024 · My brother flew into NYC last week. Never been to the US before, when they got to CBP and handed their passport over the officer made a joke about me.
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/1qv9y8j/hi_were_404_medias_jason_koebler_and_joseph_cox/
4 Feb 2026 · He was the first journalist to report that government agencies (including ICE and CBP) were buying smartphone location data from data brokers.
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/Keep_Track/hot/ [archived]
... location data are among the agency's recent technological purchases,”. WaPo. Oct. 24: “DHS Tries To Unmask Ice Spotting Instagram Account by Claiming It ...
[REDDIT] https://www.reddit.com/r/onebirdtoostoned/comments/1r3o6bc/beach_house_space_song/
13 Feb 2026 · This infrastructure provides a persistent, panoptic oversight of human behavior, effectively automating the collection of strategic intelligence ...

CROSS-REFERENCE

→ SHARES-EVENT Government Purchase of Commercial Location Data: Warrantless Surveillance Via Data Broker Loophole — This dossier details specific claims and evidence related to the broader topic of government purchase of commercial location data for warrantless surveillance.
← SUPPORTS FBI and DHS Annual Expenditure on Commercial Location Data — This dossier specifically tracks public reports on federal agencies' purchase of commercial location data, corroborating the existence of such practices by agencies like ICE and CBP, relevant to this inquiry on FBI and DHS.